This is libc.info, produced by makeinfo version 4.3 from libc.texinfo.

INFO-DIR-SECTION GNU libraries
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* Libc: (libc).                 C library.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY

   This file documents the GNU C library.

   This is Edition 0.10, last updated 2001-07-06, of `The GNU C Library
Reference Manual', for Version 2.2.x.

   Copyright (C) 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2002
Free Software Foundation, Inc.

   Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1 or
any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with the
Invariant Sections being "Free Software Needs Free Documentation" and
"GNU Lesser General Public License", the Front-Cover texts being (a)
(see below), and with the Back-Cover Texts being (b) (see below).  A
copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free
Documentation License".

   (a) The FSF's Front-Cover Text is:

   A GNU Manual

   (b) The FSF's Back-Cover Text is:

   You have freedom to copy and modify this GNU Manual, like GNU
software.  Copies published by the Free Software Foundation raise
funds for GNU development.


File: libc.info,  Node: Math Error Reporting,  Prev: Status bit operations,  Up: Floating Point Errors

Error Reporting by Mathematical Functions
-----------------------------------------

   Many of the math functions are defined only over a subset of the
real or complex numbers.  Even if they are mathematically defined,
their result may be larger or smaller than the range representable by
their return type.  These are known as "domain errors", "overflows", and
"underflows", respectively.  Math functions do several things when one
of these errors occurs.  In this manual we will refer to the complete
response as "signalling" a domain error, overflow, or underflow.

   When a math function suffers a domain error, it raises the invalid
exception and returns NaN.  It also sets ERRNO to `EDOM'; this is for
compatibility with old systems that do not support IEEE 754 exception
handling.  Likewise, when overflow occurs, math functions raise the
overflow exception and return oo or -oo as appropriate.  They also set
ERRNO to `ERANGE'.  When underflow occurs, the underflow exception is
raised, and zero (appropriately signed) is returned.  ERRNO may be set
to `ERANGE', but this is not guaranteed.

   Some of the math functions are defined mathematically to result in a
complex value over parts of their domains.  The most familiar example of
this is taking the square root of a negative number.  The complex math
functions, such as `csqrt', will return the appropriate complex value
in this case.  The real-valued functions, such as `sqrt', will signal a
domain error.

   Some older hardware does not support infinities.  On that hardware,
overflows instead return a particular very large number (usually the
largest representable number).  `math.h' defines macros you can use to
test for overflow on both old and new hardware.

 - Macro: double HUGE_VAL
 - Macro: float HUGE_VALF
 - Macro: long double HUGE_VALL
     An expression representing a particular very large number.  On
     machines that use IEEE 754 floating point format, `HUGE_VAL' is
     infinity.  On other machines, it's typically the largest positive
     number that can be represented.

     Mathematical functions return the appropriately typed version of
     `HUGE_VAL' or `-HUGE_VAL' when the result is too large to be
     represented.


File: libc.info,  Node: Rounding,  Next: Control Functions,  Prev: Floating Point Errors,  Up: Arithmetic

Rounding Modes
==============

   Floating-point calculations are carried out internally with extra
precision, and then rounded to fit into the destination type.  This
ensures that results are as precise as the input data.  IEEE 754
defines four possible rounding modes:

Round to nearest.
     This is the default mode.  It should be used unless there is a
     specific need for one of the others.  In this mode results are
     rounded to the nearest representable value.  If the result is
     midway between two representable values, the even representable is
     chosen. "Even" here means the lowest-order bit is zero.  This
     rounding mode prevents statistical bias and guarantees numeric
     stability: round-off errors in a lengthy calculation will remain
     smaller than half of `FLT_EPSILON'.

Round toward plus Infinity.
     All results are rounded to the smallest representable value which
     is greater than the result.

Round toward minus Infinity.
     All results are rounded to the largest representable value which
     is less than the result.

Round toward zero.
     All results are rounded to the largest representable value whose
     magnitude is less than that of the result.  In other words, if the
     result is negative it is rounded up; if it is positive, it is
     rounded down.

`fenv.h' defines constants which you can use to refer to the various
rounding modes.  Each one will be defined if and only if the FPU
supports the corresponding rounding mode.

`FE_TONEAREST'
     Round to nearest.

`FE_UPWARD'
     Round toward +oo.

`FE_DOWNWARD'
     Round toward -oo.

`FE_TOWARDZERO'
     Round toward zero.

   Underflow is an unusual case.  Normally, IEEE 754 floating point
numbers are always normalized (*note Floating Point Concepts::).
Numbers smaller than 2^r (where r is the minimum exponent,
`FLT_MIN_RADIX-1' for FLOAT) cannot be represented as normalized
numbers.  Rounding all such numbers to zero or 2^r would cause some
algorithms to fail at 0.  Therefore, they are left in denormalized
form.  That produces loss of precision, since some bits of the mantissa
are stolen to indicate the decimal point.

   If a result is too small to be represented as a denormalized number,
it is rounded to zero.  However, the sign of the result is preserved; if
the calculation was negative, the result is "negative zero".  Negative
zero can also result from some operations on infinity, such as 4/-oo.
Negative zero behaves identically to zero except when the `copysign' or
`signbit' functions are used to check the sign bit directly.

   At any time one of the above four rounding modes is selected.  You
can find out which one with this function:

 - Function: int fegetround (void)
     Returns the currently selected rounding mode, represented by one
     of the values of the defined rounding mode macros.

To change the rounding mode, use this function:

 - Function: int fesetround (int ROUND)
     Changes the currently selected rounding mode to ROUND.  If ROUND
     does not correspond to one of the supported rounding modes nothing
     is changed.  `fesetround' returns zero if it changed the rounding
     mode, a nonzero value if the mode is not supported.

   You should avoid changing the rounding mode if possible.  It can be
an expensive operation; also, some hardware requires you to compile your
program differently for it to work.  The resulting code may run slower.
See your compiler documentation for details.


File: libc.info,  Node: Control Functions,  Next: Arithmetic Functions,  Prev: Rounding,  Up: Arithmetic

Floating-Point Control Functions
================================

   IEEE 754 floating-point implementations allow the programmer to
decide whether traps will occur for each of the exceptions, by setting
bits in the "control word".  In C, traps result in the program
receiving the `SIGFPE' signal; see *Note Signal Handling::.

   *Note:* IEEE 754 says that trap handlers are given details of the
exceptional situation, and can set the result value.  C signals do not
provide any mechanism to pass this information back and forth.
Trapping exceptions in C is therefore not very useful.

   It is sometimes necessary to save the state of the floating-point
unit while you perform some calculation.  The library provides functions
which save and restore the exception flags, the set of exceptions that
generate traps, and the rounding mode.  This information is known as the
"floating-point environment".

   The functions to save and restore the floating-point environment all
use a variable of type `fenv_t' to store information.  This type is
defined in `fenv.h'.  Its size and contents are implementation-defined.
You should not attempt to manipulate a variable of this type directly.

   To save the state of the FPU, use one of these functions:

 - Function: int fegetenv (fenv_t *ENVP)
     Store the floating-point environment in the variable pointed to by
     ENVP.

     The function returns zero in case the operation was successful, a
     non-zero value otherwise.

 - Function: int feholdexcept (fenv_t *ENVP)
     Store the current floating-point environment in the object pointed
     to by ENVP.  Then clear all exception flags, and set the FPU to
     trap no exceptions.  Not all FPUs support trapping no exceptions;
     if `feholdexcept' cannot set this mode, it returns nonzero value.
     If it succeeds, it returns zero.

   The functions which restore the floating-point environment can take
these kinds of arguments:

   * Pointers to `fenv_t' objects, which were initialized previously by
     a call to `fegetenv' or `feholdexcept'.

   * The special macro `FE_DFL_ENV' which represents the floating-point
     environment as it was available at program start.

   * Implementation defined macros with names starting with `FE_' and
     having type `fenv_t *'.

     If possible, the GNU C Library defines a macro `FE_NOMASK_ENV'
     which represents an environment where every exception raised
     causes a trap to occur.  You can test for this macro using
     `#ifdef'.  It is only defined if `_GNU_SOURCE' is defined.

     Some platforms might define other predefined environments.

To set the floating-point environment, you can use either of these
functions:

 - Function: int fesetenv (const fenv_t *ENVP)
     Set the floating-point environment to that described by ENVP.

     The function returns zero in case the operation was successful, a
     non-zero value otherwise.

 - Function: int feupdateenv (const fenv_t *ENVP)
     Like `fesetenv', this function sets the floating-point environment
     to that described by ENVP.  However, if any exceptions were
     flagged in the status word before `feupdateenv' was called, they
     remain flagged after the call.  In other words, after `feupdateenv'
     is called, the status word is the bitwise OR of the previous
     status word and the one saved in ENVP.

     The function returns zero in case the operation was successful, a
     non-zero value otherwise.

To control for individual exceptions if raising them causes a trap to
occur, you can use the following two functions.

   *Portability Note:* These functions are all GNU extensions.

 - Function: int feenableexcept (int EXCEPTS)
     This functions enables traps for each of the exceptions as
     indicated by the parameter EXCEPT.  The individual excepetions are
     described in *Note Status bit operations::.  Only the specified
     exceptions are enabled, the status of the other exceptions is not
     changed.

     The function returns the previous enabled exceptions in case the
     operation was successful, `-1' otherwise.

 - Function: int fedisableexcept (int EXCEPTS)
     This functions disables traps for each of the exceptions as
     indicated by the parameter EXCEPT.  The individual excepetions are
     described in *Note Status bit operations::.  Only the specified
     exceptions are disabled, the status of the other exceptions is not
     changed.

     The function returns the previous enabled exceptions in case the
     operation was successful, `-1' otherwise.

 - Function: int fegetexcept (int EXCEPTS)
     The function returns a bitmask of all currently enabled
     exceptions.  It returns `-1' in case of failure.


File: libc.info,  Node: Arithmetic Functions,  Next: Complex Numbers,  Prev: Control Functions,  Up: Arithmetic

Arithmetic Functions
====================

   The C library provides functions to do basic operations on
floating-point numbers.  These include absolute value, maximum and
minimum, normalization, bit twiddling, rounding, and a few others.

* Menu:

* Absolute Value::              Absolute values of integers and floats.
* Normalization Functions::     Extracting exponents and putting them back.
* Rounding Functions::          Rounding floats to integers.
* Remainder Functions::         Remainders on division, precisely defined.
* FP Bit Twiddling::            Sign bit adjustment.  Adding epsilon.
* FP Comparison Functions::     Comparisons without risk of exceptions.
* Misc FP Arithmetic::          Max, min, positive difference, multiply-add.


File: libc.info,  Node: Absolute Value,  Next: Normalization Functions,  Up: Arithmetic Functions

Absolute Value
--------------

   These functions are provided for obtaining the "absolute value" (or
"magnitude") of a number.  The absolute value of a real number X is X
if X is positive, -X if X is negative.  For a complex number Z, whose
real part is X and whose imaginary part is Y, the absolute value is
`sqrt (X*X + Y*Y)'.

   Prototypes for `abs', `labs' and `llabs' are in `stdlib.h';
`imaxabs' is declared in `inttypes.h'; `fabs', `fabsf' and `fabsl' are
declared in `math.h'.  `cabs', `cabsf' and `cabsl' are declared in
`complex.h'.

 - Function: int abs (int NUMBER)
 - Function: long int labs (long int NUMBER)
 - Function: long long int llabs (long long int NUMBER)
 - Function: intmax_t imaxabs (intmax_t NUMBER)
     These functions return the absolute value of NUMBER.

     Most computers use a two's complement integer representation, in
     which the absolute value of `INT_MIN' (the smallest possible `int')
     cannot be represented; thus, `abs (INT_MIN)' is not defined.

     `llabs' and `imaxdiv' are new to ISO C99.

     See *Note Integers:: for a description of the `intmax_t' type.


 - Function: double fabs (double NUMBER)
 - Function: float fabsf (float NUMBER)
 - Function: long double fabsl (long double NUMBER)
     This function returns the absolute value of the floating-point
     number NUMBER.

 - Function: double cabs (complex double Z)
 - Function: float cabsf (complex float Z)
 - Function: long double cabsl (complex long double Z)
     These functions return the absolute  value of the complex number Z
     (*note Complex Numbers::).  The absolute value of a complex number
     is:

          sqrt (creal (Z) * creal (Z) + cimag (Z) * cimag (Z))

     This function should always be used instead of the direct formula
     because it takes special care to avoid losing precision.  It may
     also take advantage of hardware support for this operation. See
     `hypot' in *Note Exponents and Logarithms::.


File: libc.info,  Node: Normalization Functions,  Next: Rounding Functions,  Prev: Absolute Value,  Up: Arithmetic Functions

Normalization Functions
-----------------------

   The functions described in this section are primarily provided as a
way to efficiently perform certain low-level manipulations on floating
point numbers that are represented internally using a binary radix; see
*Note Floating Point Concepts::.  These functions are required to have
equivalent behavior even if the representation does not use a radix of
2, but of course they are unlikely to be particularly efficient in
those cases.

   All these functions are declared in `math.h'.

 - Function: double frexp (double VALUE, int *EXPONENT)
 - Function: float frexpf (float VALUE, int *EXPONENT)
 - Function: long double frexpl (long double VALUE, int *EXPONENT)
     These functions are used to split the number VALUE into a
     normalized fraction and an exponent.

     If the argument VALUE is not zero, the return value is VALUE times
     a power of two, and is always in the range 1/2 (inclusive) to 1
     (exclusive).  The corresponding exponent is stored in `*EXPONENT';
     the return value multiplied by 2 raised to this exponent equals
     the original number VALUE.

     For example, `frexp (12.8, &exponent)' returns `0.8' and stores
     `4' in `exponent'.

     If VALUE is zero, then the return value is zero and zero is stored
     in `*EXPONENT'.

 - Function: double ldexp (double VALUE, int EXPONENT)
 - Function: float ldexpf (float VALUE, int EXPONENT)
 - Function: long double ldexpl (long double VALUE, int EXPONENT)
     These functions return the result of multiplying the floating-point
     number VALUE by 2 raised to the power EXPONENT.  (It can be used
     to reassemble floating-point numbers that were taken apart by
     `frexp'.)

     For example, `ldexp (0.8, 4)' returns `12.8'.

   The following functions, which come from BSD, provide facilities
equivalent to those of `ldexp' and `frexp'.  See also the ISO C
function `logb' which originally also appeared in BSD.

 - Function: double scalb (double VALUE, int EXPONENT)
 - Function: float scalbf (float VALUE, int EXPONENT)
 - Function: long double scalbl (long double VALUE, int EXPONENT)
     The `scalb' function is the BSD name for `ldexp'.

 - Function: long long int scalbn (double X, int n)
 - Function: long long int scalbnf (float X, int n)
 - Function: long long int scalbnl (long double X, int n)
     `scalbn' is identical to `scalb', except that the exponent N is an
     `int' instead of a floating-point number.

 - Function: long long int scalbln (double X, long int n)
 - Function: long long int scalblnf (float X, long int n)
 - Function: long long int scalblnl (long double X, long int n)
     `scalbln' is identical to `scalb', except that the exponent N is a
     `long int' instead of a floating-point number.

 - Function: long long int significand (double X)
 - Function: long long int significandf (float X)
 - Function: long long int significandl (long double X)
     `significand' returns the mantissa of X scaled to the range [1, 2).
     It is equivalent to `scalb (X, (double) -ilogb (X))'.

     This function exists mainly for use in certain standardized tests
     of IEEE 754 conformance.


File: libc.info,  Node: Rounding Functions,  Next: Remainder Functions,  Prev: Normalization Functions,  Up: Arithmetic Functions

Rounding Functions
------------------

   The functions listed here perform operations such as rounding and
truncation of floating-point values. Some of these functions convert
floating point numbers to integer values.  They are all declared in
`math.h'.

   You can also convert floating-point numbers to integers simply by
casting them to `int'.  This discards the fractional part, effectively
rounding towards zero.  However, this only works if the result can
actually be represented as an `int'--for very large numbers, this is
impossible.  The functions listed here return the result as a `double'
instead to get around this problem.

 - Function: double ceil (double X)
 - Function: float ceilf (float X)
 - Function: long double ceill (long double X)
     These functions round X upwards to the nearest integer, returning
     that value as a `double'.  Thus, `ceil (1.5)' is `2.0'.

 - Function: double floor (double X)
 - Function: float floorf (float X)
 - Function: long double floorl (long double X)
     These functions round X downwards to the nearest integer,
     returning that value as a `double'.  Thus, `floor (1.5)' is `1.0'
     and `floor (-1.5)' is `-2.0'.

 - Function: double trunc (double X)
 - Function: float truncf (float X)
 - Function: long double truncl (long double X)
     The `trunc' functions round X towards zero to the nearest integer
     (returned in floating-point format).  Thus, `trunc (1.5)' is `1.0'
     and `trunc (-1.5)' is `-1.0'.

 - Function: double rint (double X)
 - Function: float rintf (float X)
 - Function: long double rintl (long double X)
     These functions round X to an integer value according to the
     current rounding mode.  *Note Floating Point Parameters::, for
     information about the various rounding modes.  The default
     rounding mode is to round to the nearest integer; some machines
     support other modes, but round-to-nearest is always used unless
     you explicitly select another.

     If X was not initially an integer, these functions raise the
     inexact exception.

 - Function: double nearbyint (double X)
 - Function: float nearbyintf (float X)
 - Function: long double nearbyintl (long double X)
     These functions return the same value as the `rint' functions, but
     do not raise the inexact exception if X is not an integer.

 - Function: double round (double X)
 - Function: float roundf (float X)
 - Function: long double roundl (long double X)
     These functions are similar to `rint', but they round halfway
     cases away from zero instead of to the nearest even integer.

 - Function: long int lrint (double X)
 - Function: long int lrintf (float X)
 - Function: long int lrintl (long double X)
     These functions are just like `rint', but they return a `long int'
     instead of a floating-point number.

 - Function: long long int llrint (double X)
 - Function: long long int llrintf (float X)
 - Function: long long int llrintl (long double X)
     These functions are just like `rint', but they return a `long long
     int' instead of a floating-point number.

 - Function: long int lround (double X)
 - Function: long int lroundf (float X)
 - Function: long int lroundl (long double X)
     These functions are just like `round', but they return a `long
     int' instead of a floating-point number.

 - Function: long long int llround (double X)
 - Function: long long int llroundf (float X)
 - Function: long long int llroundl (long double X)
     These functions are just like `round', but they return a `long
     long int' instead of a floating-point number.

 - Function: double modf (double VALUE, double *INTEGER-PART)
 - Function: float modff (float VALUE, float *INTEGER-PART)
 - Function: long double modfl (long double VALUE, long double
          *INTEGER-PART)
     These functions break the argument VALUE into an integer part and a
     fractional part (between `-1' and `1', exclusive).  Their sum
     equals VALUE.  Each of the parts has the same sign as VALUE, and
     the integer part is always rounded toward zero.

     `modf' stores the integer part in `*INTEGER-PART', and returns the
     fractional part.  For example, `modf (2.5, &intpart)' returns
     `0.5' and stores `2.0' into `intpart'.


File: libc.info,  Node: Remainder Functions,  Next: FP Bit Twiddling,  Prev: Rounding Functions,  Up: Arithmetic Functions

Remainder Functions
-------------------

   The functions in this section compute the remainder on division of
two floating-point numbers.  Each is a little different; pick the one
that suits your problem.

 - Function: double fmod (double NUMERATOR, double DENOMINATOR)
 - Function: float fmodf (float NUMERATOR, float DENOMINATOR)
 - Function: long double fmodl (long double NUMERATOR, long double
          DENOMINATOR)
     These functions compute the remainder from the division of
     NUMERATOR by DENOMINATOR.  Specifically, the return value is
     `NUMERATOR - N * DENOMINATOR', where N is the quotient of
     NUMERATOR divided by DENOMINATOR, rounded towards zero to an
     integer.  Thus, `fmod (6.5, 2.3)' returns `1.9', which is `6.5'
     minus `4.6'.

     The result has the same sign as the NUMERATOR and has magnitude
     less than the magnitude of the DENOMINATOR.

     If DENOMINATOR is zero, `fmod' signals a domain error.

 - Function: double drem (double NUMERATOR, double DENOMINATOR)
 - Function: float dremf (float NUMERATOR, float DENOMINATOR)
 - Function: long double dreml (long double NUMERATOR, long double
          DENOMINATOR)
     These functions are like `fmod' except that they rounds the
     internal quotient N to the nearest integer instead of towards zero
     to an integer.  For example, `drem (6.5, 2.3)' returns `-0.4',
     which is `6.5' minus `6.9'.

     The absolute value of the result is less than or equal to half the
     absolute value of the DENOMINATOR.  The difference between `fmod
     (NUMERATOR, DENOMINATOR)' and `drem (NUMERATOR, DENOMINATOR)' is
     always either DENOMINATOR, minus DENOMINATOR, or zero.

     If DENOMINATOR is zero, `drem' signals a domain error.

 - Function: double remainder (double NUMERATOR, double DENOMINATOR)
 - Function: float remainderf (float NUMERATOR, float DENOMINATOR)
 - Function: long double remainderl (long double NUMERATOR, long double
          DENOMINATOR)
     This function is another name for `drem'.


File: libc.info,  Node: FP Bit Twiddling,  Next: FP Comparison Functions,  Prev: Remainder Functions,  Up: Arithmetic Functions

Setting and modifying single bits of FP values
----------------------------------------------

   There are some operations that are too complicated or expensive to
perform by hand on floating-point numbers.  ISO C99 defines functions
to do these operations, which mostly involve changing single bits.

 - Function: double copysign (double X, double Y)
 - Function: float copysignf (float X, float Y)
 - Function: long double copysignl (long double X, long double Y)
     These functions return X but with the sign of Y.  They work even
     if X or Y are NaN or zero.  Both of these can carry a sign
     (although not all implementations support it) and this is one of
     the few operations that can tell the difference.

     `copysign' never raises an exception.

     This function is defined in IEC 559 (and the appendix with
     recommended functions in IEEE 754/IEEE 854).

 - Function: int signbit (_float-type_ X)
     `signbit' is a generic macro which can work on all floating-point
     types.  It returns a nonzero value if the value of X has its sign
     bit set.

     This is not the same as `x < 0.0', because IEEE 754 floating point
     allows zero to be signed.  The comparison `-0.0 < 0.0' is false,
     but `signbit (-0.0)' will return a nonzero value.

 - Function: double nextafter (double X, double Y)
 - Function: float nextafterf (float X, float Y)
 - Function: long double nextafterl (long double X, long double Y)
     The `nextafter' function returns the next representable neighbor of
     X in the direction towards Y.  The size of the step between X and
     the result depends on the type of the result.  If X = Y the
     function simply returns Y.  If either value is `NaN', `NaN' is
     returned.  Otherwise a value corresponding to the value of the
     least significant bit in the mantissa is added or subtracted,
     depending on the direction.  `nextafter' will signal overflow or
     underflow if the result goes outside of the range of normalized
     numbers.

     This function is defined in IEC 559 (and the appendix with
     recommended functions in IEEE 754/IEEE 854).

 - Function: double nexttoward (double X, long double Y)
 - Function: float nexttowardf (float X, long double Y)
 - Function: long double nexttowardl (long double X, long double Y)
     These functions are identical to the corresponding versions of
     `nextafter' except that their second argument is a `long double'.

 - Function: double nan (const char *TAGP)
 - Function: float nanf (const char *TAGP)
 - Function: long double nanl (const char *TAGP)
     The `nan' function returns a representation of NaN, provided that
     NaN is supported by the target platform.  `nan
     ("N-CHAR-SEQUENCE")' is equivalent to `strtod
     ("NAN(N-CHAR-SEQUENCE)")'.

     The argument TAGP is used in an unspecified manner.  On IEEE 754
     systems, there are many representations of NaN, and TAGP selects
     one.  On other systems it may do nothing.


File: libc.info,  Node: FP Comparison Functions,  Next: Misc FP Arithmetic,  Prev: FP Bit Twiddling,  Up: Arithmetic Functions

Floating-Point Comparison Functions
-----------------------------------

   The standard C comparison operators provoke exceptions when one or
other of the operands is NaN.  For example,

     int v = a < 1.0;

will raise an exception if A is NaN.  (This does _not_ happen with `=='
and `!='; those merely return false and true, respectively, when NaN is
examined.)  Frequently this exception is undesirable.  ISO C99
therefore defines comparison functions that do not raise exceptions
when NaN is examined.  All of the functions are implemented as macros
which allow their arguments to be of any floating-point type.  The
macros are guaranteed to evaluate their arguments only once.

 - Macro: int isgreater (_real-floating_ X, _real-floating_ Y)
     This macro determines whether the argument X is greater than Y.
     It is equivalent to `(X) > (Y)', but no exception is raised if X
     or Y are NaN.

 - Macro: int isgreaterequal (_real-floating_ X, _real-floating_ Y)
     This macro determines whether the argument X is greater than or
     equal to Y.  It is equivalent to `(X) >= (Y)', but no exception is
     raised if X or Y are NaN.

 - Macro: int isless (_real-floating_ X, _real-floating_ Y)
     This macro determines whether the argument X is less than Y.  It
     is equivalent to `(X) < (Y)', but no exception is raised if X or Y
     are NaN.

 - Macro: int islessequal (_real-floating_ X, _real-floating_ Y)
     This macro determines whether the argument X is less than or equal
     to Y.  It is equivalent to `(X) <= (Y)', but no exception is
     raised if X or Y are NaN.

 - Macro: int islessgreater (_real-floating_ X, _real-floating_ Y)
     This macro determines whether the argument X is less or greater
     than Y.  It is equivalent to `(X) < (Y) || (X) > (Y)' (although it
     only evaluates X and Y once), but no exception is raised if X or Y
     are NaN.

     This macro is not equivalent to `X != Y', because that expression
     is true if X or Y are NaN.

 - Macro: int isunordered (_real-floating_ X, _real-floating_ Y)
     This macro determines whether its arguments are unordered.  In
     other words, it is true if X or Y are NaN, and false otherwise.

   Not all machines provide hardware support for these operations.  On
machines that don't, the macros can be very slow.  Therefore, you should
not use these functions when NaN is not a concern.

   *Note:* There are no macros `isequal' or `isunequal'.  They are
unnecessary, because the `==' and `!=' operators do _not_ throw an
exception if one or both of the operands are NaN.


File: libc.info,  Node: Misc FP Arithmetic,  Prev: FP Comparison Functions,  Up: Arithmetic Functions

Miscellaneous FP arithmetic functions
-------------------------------------

   The functions in this section perform miscellaneous but common
operations that are awkward to express with C operators.  On some
processors these functions can use special machine instructions to
perform these operations faster than the equivalent C code.

 - Function: double fmin (double X, double Y)
 - Function: float fminf (float X, float Y)
 - Function: long double fminl (long double X, long double Y)
     The `fmin' function returns the lesser of the two values X and Y.
     It is similar to the expression
          ((x) < (y) ? (x) : (y))
     except that X and Y are only evaluated once.

     If an argument is NaN, the other argument is returned.  If both
     arguments are NaN, NaN is returned.

 - Function: double fmax (double X, double Y)
 - Function: float fmaxf (float X, float Y)
 - Function: long double fmaxl (long double X, long double Y)
     The `fmax' function returns the greater of the two values X and Y.

     If an argument is NaN, the other argument is returned.  If both
     arguments are NaN, NaN is returned.

 - Function: double fdim (double X, double Y)
 - Function: float fdimf (float X, float Y)
 - Function: long double fdiml (long double X, long double Y)
     The `fdim' function returns the positive difference between X and
     Y.  The positive difference is X - Y if X is greater than Y, and 0
     otherwise.

     If X, Y, or both are NaN, NaN is returned.

 - Function: double fma (double X, double Y, double Z)
 - Function: float fmaf (float X, float Y, float Z)
 - Function: long double fmal (long double X, long double Y, long
          double Z)
     The `fma' function performs floating-point multiply-add.  This is
     the operation (X * Y) + Z, but the intermediate result is not
     rounded to the destination type.  This can sometimes improve the
     precision of a calculation.

     This function was introduced because some processors have a special
     instruction to perform multiply-add.  The C compiler cannot use it
     directly, because the expression `x*y + z' is defined to round the
     intermediate result.  `fma' lets you choose when you want to round
     only once.

     On processors which do not implement multiply-add in hardware,
     `fma' can be very slow since it must avoid intermediate rounding.
     `math.h' defines the symbols `FP_FAST_FMA', `FP_FAST_FMAF', and
     `FP_FAST_FMAL' when the corresponding version of `fma' is no
     slower than the expression `x*y + z'.  In the GNU C library, this
     always means the operation is implemented in hardware.


File: libc.info,  Node: Complex Numbers,  Next: Operations on Complex,  Prev: Arithmetic Functions,  Up: Arithmetic

Complex Numbers
===============

   ISO C99 introduces support for complex numbers in C.  This is done
with a new type qualifier, `complex'.  It is a keyword if and only if
`complex.h' has been included.  There are three complex types,
corresponding to the three real types:  `float complex', `double
complex', and `long double complex'.

   To construct complex numbers you need a way to indicate the imaginary
part of a number.  There is no standard notation for an imaginary
floating point constant.  Instead, `complex.h' defines two macros that
can be used to create complex numbers.

 - Macro: const float complex _Complex_I
     This macro is a representation of the complex number "0+1i".
     Multiplying a real floating-point value by `_Complex_I' gives a
     complex number whose value is purely imaginary.  You can use this
     to construct complex constants:

          3.0 + 4.0i = `3.0 + 4.0 * _Complex_I'

     Note that `_Complex_I * _Complex_I' has the value `-1', but the
     type of that value is `complex'.

`_Complex_I' is a bit of a mouthful.  `complex.h' also defines a
shorter name for the same constant.

 - Macro: const float complex I
     This macro has exactly the same value as `_Complex_I'.  Most of the
     time it is preferable.  However, it causes problems if you want to
     use the identifier `I' for something else.  You can safely write

          #include <complex.h>
          #undef I

     if you need `I' for your own purposes.  (In that case we recommend
     you also define some other short name for `_Complex_I', such as
     `J'.)



File: libc.info,  Node: Operations on Complex,  Next: Parsing of Numbers,  Prev: Complex Numbers,  Up: Arithmetic

Projections, Conjugates, and Decomposing of Complex Numbers
===========================================================

   ISO C99 also defines functions that perform basic operations on
complex numbers, such as decomposition and conjugation.  The prototypes
for all these functions are in `complex.h'.  All functions are
available in three variants, one for each of the three complex types.

 - Function: double creal (complex double Z)
 - Function: float crealf (complex float Z)
 - Function: long double creall (complex long double Z)
     These functions return the real part of the complex number Z.

 - Function: double cimag (complex double Z)
 - Function: float cimagf (complex float Z)
 - Function: long double cimagl (complex long double Z)
     These functions return the imaginary part of the complex number Z.

 - Function: complex double conj (complex double Z)
 - Function: complex float conjf (complex float Z)
 - Function: complex long double conjl (complex long double Z)
     These functions return the conjugate value of the complex number
     Z.  The conjugate of a complex number has the same real part and a
     negated imaginary part.  In other words, `conj(a + bi) = a + -bi'.

 - Function: double carg (complex double Z)
 - Function: float cargf (complex float Z)
 - Function: long double cargl (complex long double Z)
     These functions return the argument of the complex number Z.  The
     argument of a complex number is the angle in the complex plane
     between the positive real axis and a line passing through zero and
     the number.  This angle is measured in the usual fashion and
     ranges from 0 to 2pi.

     `carg' has a branch cut along the positive real axis.

 - Function: complex double cproj (complex double Z)
 - Function: complex float cprojf (complex float Z)
 - Function: complex long double cprojl (complex long double Z)
     These functions return the projection of the complex value Z onto
     the Riemann sphere.  Values with a infinite imaginary part are
     projected to positive infinity on the real axis, even if the real
     part is NaN.  If the real part is infinite, the result is
     equivalent to

          INFINITY + I * copysign (0.0, cimag (z))


File: libc.info,  Node: Parsing of Numbers,  Next: System V Number Conversion,  Prev: Operations on Complex,  Up: Arithmetic

Parsing of Numbers
==================

   This section describes functions for "reading" integer and
floating-point numbers from a string.  It may be more convenient in some
cases to use `sscanf' or one of the related functions; see *Note
Formatted Input::.  But often you can make a program more robust by
finding the tokens in the string by hand, then converting the numbers
one by one.

* Menu:

* Parsing of Integers::         Functions for conversion of integer values.
* Parsing of Floats::           Functions for conversion of floating-point
				 values.


File: libc.info,  Node: Parsing of Integers,  Next: Parsing of Floats,  Up: Parsing of Numbers

Parsing of Integers
-------------------

   The `str' functions are declared in `stdlib.h' and those beginning
with `wcs' are declared in `wchar.h'.  One might wonder about the use
of `restrict' in the prototypes of the functions in this section.  It
is seemingly useless but the ISO C standard uses it (for the functions
defined there) so we have to do it as well.

 - Function: long int strtol (const char *restrict STRING, char
          **restrict TAILPTR, int BASE)
     The `strtol' ("string-to-long") function converts the initial part
     of STRING to a signed integer, which is returned as a value of
     type `long int'.

     This function attempts to decompose STRING as follows:

        * A (possibly empty) sequence of whitespace characters.  Which
          characters are whitespace is determined by the `isspace'
          function (*note Classification of Characters::).  These are
          discarded.

        * An optional plus or minus sign (`+' or `-').

        * A nonempty sequence of digits in the radix specified by BASE.

          If BASE is zero, decimal radix is assumed unless the series of
          digits begins with `0' (specifying octal radix), or `0x' or
          `0X' (specifying hexadecimal radix); in other words, the same
          syntax used for integer constants in C.

          Otherwise BASE must have a value between `2' and `36'.  If
          BASE is `16', the digits may optionally be preceded by `0x'
          or `0X'.  If base has no legal value the value returned is
          `0l' and the global variable `errno' is set to `EINVAL'.

        * Any remaining characters in the string.  If TAILPTR is not a
          null pointer, `strtol' stores a pointer to this tail in
          `*TAILPTR'.

     If the string is empty, contains only whitespace, or does not
     contain an initial substring that has the expected syntax for an
     integer in the specified BASE, no conversion is performed.  In
     this case, `strtol' returns a value of zero and the value stored in
     `*TAILPTR' is the value of STRING.

     In a locale other than the standard `"C"' locale, this function
     may recognize additional implementation-dependent syntax.

     If the string has valid syntax for an integer but the value is not
     representable because of overflow, `strtol' returns either
     `LONG_MAX' or `LONG_MIN' (*note Range of Type::), as appropriate
     for the sign of the value.  It also sets `errno' to `ERANGE' to
     indicate there was overflow.

     You should not check for errors by examining the return value of
     `strtol', because the string might be a valid representation of
     `0l', `LONG_MAX', or `LONG_MIN'.  Instead, check whether TAILPTR
     points to what you expect after the number (e.g. `'\0'' if the
     string should end after the number).  You also need to clear ERRNO
     before the call and check it afterward, in case there was overflow.

     There is an example at the end of this section.

 - Function: long int wcstol (const wchar_t *restrict STRING, wchar_t
          **restrict TAILPTR, int BASE)
     The `wcstol' function is equivalent to the `strtol' function in
     nearly all aspects but handles wide character strings.

     The `wcstol' function was introduced in Amendment 1 of ISO C90.

 - Function: unsigned long int strtoul (const char *retrict STRING,
          char **restrict TAILPTR, int BASE)
     The `strtoul' ("string-to-unsigned-long") function is like
     `strtol' except it converts to an `unsigned long int' value.  The
     syntax is the same as described above for `strtol'.  The value
     returned on overflow is `ULONG_MAX' (*note Range of Type::).

     If STRING depicts a negative number, `strtoul' acts the same as
     STRTOL but casts the result to an unsigned integer.  That means
     for example that `strtoul' on `"-1"' returns `ULONG_MAX' and an
     input more negative than `LONG_MIN' returns (`ULONG_MAX' + 1) / 2.

     `strtoul' sets ERRNO to `EINVAL' if BASE is out of range, or
     `ERANGE' on overflow.

 - Function: unsigned long int wcstoul (const wchar_t *restrict STRING,
          wchar_t **restrict TAILPTR, int BASE)
     The `wcstoul' function is equivalent to the `strtoul' function in
     nearly all aspects but handles wide character strings.

     The `wcstoul' function was introduced in Amendment 1 of ISO C90.

 - Function: long long int strtoll (const char *restrict STRING, char
          **restrict TAILPTR, int BASE)
     The `strtoll' function is like `strtol' except that it returns a
     `long long int' value, and accepts numbers with a correspondingly
     larger range.

     If the string has valid syntax for an integer but the value is not
     representable because of overflow, `strtoll' returns either
     `LONG_LONG_MAX' or `LONG_LONG_MIN' (*note Range of Type::), as
     appropriate for the sign of the value.  It also sets `errno' to
     `ERANGE' to indicate there was overflow.

     The `strtoll' function was introduced in ISO C99.

 - Function: long long int wcstoll (const wchar_t *restrict STRING,
          wchar_t **restrict TAILPTR, int BASE)
     The `wcstoll' function is equivalent to the `strtoll' function in
     nearly all aspects but handles wide character strings.

     The `wcstoll' function was introduced in Amendment 1 of ISO C90.

 - Function: long long int strtoq (const char *restrict STRING, char
          **restrict TAILPTR, int BASE)
     `strtoq' ("string-to-quad-word") is the BSD name for `strtoll'.

 - Function: long long int wcstoq (const wchar_t *restrict STRING,
          wchar_t **restrict TAILPTR, int BASE)
     The `wcstoq' function is equivalent to the `strtoq' function in
     nearly all aspects but handles wide character strings.

     The `wcstoq' function is a GNU extension.

 - Function: unsigned long long int strtoull (const char *restrict
          STRING, char **restrict TAILPTR, int BASE)
     The `strtoull' function is related to `strtoll' the same way
     `strtoul' is related to `strtol'.

     The `strtoull' function was introduced in ISO C99.

 - Function: unsigned long long int wcstoull (const wchar_t *restrict
          STRING, wchar_t **restrict TAILPTR, int BASE)
     The `wcstoull' function is equivalent to the `strtoull' function
     in nearly all aspects but handles wide character strings.

     The `wcstoull' function was introduced in Amendment 1 of ISO C90.

 - Function: unsigned long long int strtouq (const char *restrict
          STRING, char **restrict TAILPTR, int BASE)
     `strtouq' is the BSD name for `strtoull'.

 - Function: unsigned long long int wcstouq (const wchar_t *restrict
          STRING, wchar_t **restrict TAILPTR, int BASE)
     The `wcstouq' function is equivalent to the `strtouq' function in
     nearly all aspects but handles wide character strings.

     The `wcstoq' function is a GNU extension.

 - Function: intmax_t strtoimax (const char *restrict STRING, char
          **restrict TAILPTR, int BASE)
     The `strtoimax' function is like `strtol' except that it returns a
     `intmax_t' value, and accepts numbers of a corresponding range.

     If the string has valid syntax for an integer but the value is not
     representable because of overflow, `strtoimax' returns either
     `INTMAX_MAX' or `INTMAX_MIN' (*note Integers::), as appropriate
     for the sign of the value.  It also sets `errno' to `ERANGE' to
     indicate there was overflow.

     See *Note Integers:: for a description of the `intmax_t' type.  The
     `strtoimax' function was introduced in ISO C99.

 - Function: intmax_t wcstoimax (const wchar_t *restrict STRING,
          wchar_t **restrict TAILPTR, int BASE)
     The `wcstoimax' function is equivalent to the `strtoimax' function
     in nearly all aspects but handles wide character strings.

     The `wcstoimax' function was introduced in ISO C99.

 - Function: uintmax_t strtoumax (const char *restrict STRING, char
          **restrict TAILPTR, int BASE)
     The `strtoumax' function is related to `strtoimax' the same way
     that `strtoul' is related to `strtol'.

     See *Note Integers:: for a description of the `intmax_t' type.  The
     `strtoumax' function was introduced in ISO C99.

 - Function: uintmax_t wcstoumax (const wchar_t *restrict STRING,
          wchar_t **restrict TAILPTR, int BASE)
     The `wcstoumax' function is equivalent to the `strtoumax' function
     in nearly all aspects but handles wide character strings.

     The `wcstoumax' function was introduced in ISO C99.

 - Function: long int atol (const char *STRING)
     This function is similar to the `strtol' function with a BASE
     argument of `10', except that it need not detect overflow errors.
     The `atol' function is provided mostly for compatibility with
     existing code; using `strtol' is more robust.

 - Function: int atoi (const char *STRING)
     This function is like `atol', except that it returns an `int'.
     The `atoi' function is also considered obsolete; use `strtol'
     instead.

 - Function: long long int atoll (const char *STRING)
     This function is similar to `atol', except it returns a `long long
     int'.

     The `atoll' function was introduced in ISO C99.  It too is
     obsolete (despite having just been added); use `strtoll' instead.

   All the functions mentioned in this section so far do not handle
alternative representations of characters as described in the locale
data.  Some locales specify thousands separator and the way they have to
be used which can help to make large numbers more readable.  To read
such numbers one has to use the `scanf' functions with the `'' flag.

   Here is a function which parses a string as a sequence of integers
and returns the sum of them:

     int
     sum_ints_from_string (char *string)
     {
       int sum = 0;
     
       while (1) {
         char *tail;
         int next;
     
         /* Skip whitespace by hand, to detect the end.  */
         while (isspace (*string)) string++;
         if (*string == 0)
           break;
     
         /* There is more nonwhitespace,  */
         /* so it ought to be another number.  */
         errno = 0;
         /* Parse it.  */
         next = strtol (string, &tail, 0);
         /* Add it in, if not overflow.  */
         if (errno)
           printf ("Overflow\n");
         else
           sum += next;
         /* Advance past it.  */
         string = tail;
       }
     
       return sum;
     }

